The use of computers and information and communications technology (ICT) and computers generally is still a hot topic in the 21^st century, despite the technology being so commonplace in society. This article provides a brief overview of contemporary curriculum and learning theories, and attempts to place the role of ICT within the learning process. It reports on some current research and provides a simplified model for looking at where teachers' and students' progress are in terms of their ICT use.

Constructivism

The understanding of learning theory, like all areas of science, has progressed during over the past 50 years.   If we consider the average age of teachers, we can assume that many have been exposed to behaviourist learning theory. This theory espouses that people learn to do things in response to reward, and learn not to do things, in response to punishment.

Consistent with the national push for outcomes- based education is the need for schools and individual teachers to look closely at their beliefs associated with learning theory. There is little doubt that a constructivist approach is deemed to go hand- in- hand with outcomes-based education, but why?

It is worth reflecting on what we mean by constructive learning. In a report to the Western Australian Government, Newhouse (2002) said:

'What is meant by constructivism? There is no single definition of constructivism (Perkins 1992; von Glasersfeld 1992), and the term is often not defined explicitly by the user of the term. However, there is a common element in the belief that knowledge is constructed out of personal sets of meanings or conceptual frameworks based on experiences encountered in relevant environments. People interact with their environment and as a result develop conceptual frameworks to explain these interactions and assist in negotiating future interactions.

‘A common misconception regarding "constructivist" theories of knowledge is that teachers should never tell students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge themselves. This perspective confuses a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowledge, irrespective of how one is taught – even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge' (Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning 2000, p. 11).

Outcome-based curriculums are developed from the constructivist learning theory. They are a result of the developments in learning theory. Roschelle et. al. (2000) said that a major scientific accomplishment of the 20^th century was the great advancement in understanding cognition, or the mental processes of thinking, perceiving, and remembering. Cognitive research has shown that learning is most effective when four fundamental characteristics are present:

• active engagement
• participation in groups
• frequent interaction and feedback
• connections to real-world contexts.

As scientists better understand the fundamental characteristics of learning, they have realised that the structure and resources of traditional classrooms often provide quite poor support for learning. Although active, constructive learning can be integrated in classrooms with or without computers, the characteristics of computer-based technologies make them a particularly useful tool for this type of learning. Computers have long been used in classrooms as simple drill- and- practice tools but their real value lies in providing teachers with a tools that can help develop things such as higher- order thinking skills.

Like constructivism, the term higher- order thinking skills is a term often used but rarely defined. The Learning Research and Development Centre (1991) in the United States articulates what it means by taking the approach that if an individual is truly using higher- order thinking skills they will exhibit the ability to:

• size up and define a problem that is not neatly packaged
• determine which facts and formulas might be helpful for solving a problem
• recognise when more information is needed, and where and how to look for it
• deal with uncertainty by ‘'brainstorming’' possible ideas or solutions when the way to proceed is not apparent
• carry out complex analyses or tasks that require planning, management, monitoring, and adjustment
• exercise judgment in situations where there are not clear-cut 'right' and 'wrong' answers, but more and less useful ways of doing things
• step outside the routine to deal with an unexpected breakdown or opportunity.

Computers and ICT generally are not the only ways to develop these attributes in an individual but they it can make the process of developing them much easier . (see <http://caret.iste.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=answers&QuestionID=2> for more information).

What the research tells us

The value and use of computers in education continues to be debated, even though some consider them to be most significant inventions of all time. They are an integral part of the knowledge economy yet their use in schools is sporadic and often misguided.

Much research is being conducted on ICT use in schools but little of it has focused on the overall benefits to the student.  Learning is a complex and personal thing that cannot be measured just by standardised tests, if at all. The following examples give an brief overview of some of the research results that are emerging.

In a study completed by Ferretti and Okolo (1997), two sixth-grade classes took part in a social studies project on the Spanish colonisation of Latin America. The study found that the students who used computers to create a multimedia presentation on what they had learned scored significantly higher on a post-project test, compared with members of the other sixth- grade class that completed a textbook-based unit on the same topic.

Another study, by Schultz (1995), examined the effectiveness of using interactive storybooks to develop basic language skills. It and found that first graders using the technology-based system showed significantly greater gains compared with those receiving only traditional instruction.

Valdez et. al., the authors of a report produced for the North Central Regional Education Laboratory in the United States, found that the following factors must be considered for technology to play a positive role:

• The success or failure of technology is more dependent on human and contextual factors than on hardware or software.
• The extent to which teachers are given time and access to pertinent training to use computers to support learning plays a major role in determining whether or not technology has a positive impact on achievement. Students of teachers with more than 10 hours of training significantly outperformed students whose teachers had five or fewer hours.
• The success or failure of technology involves seeing it as a valuable resource.
• The success of technology depends on having significant critical access to hardware and applications that are appropriate to the learning expectations of the activity. Research and best practice indicate that one computer for every four to five students is necessary if students are to be able to use technology in a manner that will yield significant improvements in learning.
• Teachers' perception is that computers have improved the climate for learning, especially because technology increases student motivation in subjects for which they use computers.

A big question facing researchers is how to ‘test’ the effectiveness and the impact of the use of technology. Traditional testing merely measures the ability of the student to repeat basic skills. How can traditional basic skills tests show the value-adding that educational technology represents? It is important to keep in mind that just as good teachers will apply a variety of tools and methods in the classroom, the computer can also be used for a variety of things. Drill and practice, as shown can be seen from the results below, still play an important role in our classrooms but they are only one component.

According to Valdez et. al., results from some 946 studies, ranging from the preschool level to college, were examined with a view to determine the effectiveness of using computer use in a drill- and- practice manner. The conclusion was that instructional programs that included technology showed a positive impact on student achievement, resulting in higher test scores. Key findings from these studies included the following:

• Classrooms in which computers were used to support instruction usually showed gains in student achievement as measured by standardised achievement tests. The magnitude of the gains varied from study to study. There was usually a good match between the desired outcome of the treatment and the outcome that was measured.
• The effectiveness of different applications of computer-assisted instruction varied according to by the content area and the skill being taught. In general, applications fared better if delivered in a content area with a defined structure, such as mathematics.

In a recent report based on an extensive review of research, Sivin-Kachela and Bialo (1996) state that evidence supports the claim that 'low- achieving students and students with little prior content knowledge are likely to require more structure and instructional guidance than other students'.

Attitudes, perceptions, and realities
One of the greatest challenges facing educators is getting a balance in the types of use of ICT in the classroom. Attitudes and perceptions of not only teachers and parents, but those of students, are instrumental in navigating a way forward.

Bennett and Lockyear (1999) point out that while a significant body of theoretical and anecdotal literature exists on the potential benefits of digital technologies in K–-12 teaching and learning, relatively few rigorous and systematic studies have investigated the impact of such technologies.  One of the reasons for this, says Newman (1997), is that many people do not understand how and why computers are used in education, making the mistake that either they are used in the same way as in business or else just for drill- and- practice activities.

One of the problems with the research is that it often uses standard tests as a measure of success. These tests are based on the old paradigms of teaching and thus measure what is easy to assess in a content- focused curriculum rather than what should be assessed.

Bennett and Lockyer (1999) also point out that in a study of the attitudes and behaviour of a group of fifth- grade students using the Internet, increased motivation and focus was observed on the learning task. A follow-up attitudinal survey revealed no evidence of intimidation or frustration among the group despite their limited computer experience. This is in contrast to many teachers who were educated in a system that did not encourage risk- taking and exploratory learning. Such people become frustrated with a computer- based task if they feel they lack enough technical skill.

A study conducted by Richards (1996) found that the difference between students' and teachers' perceptions of the Internet is to be considerable. Fifty-eight percent of teachers rated the Internet as an effective teaching and learning tool, compared with 92 percent of students.

One of the other common phrases heard amongst some teachers is 'I don’t do a lot with computers, the kids just get on and I let them go. They know more about them than I do'.  The students might know more about what buttons to press but somehow I cannot help but feel education is more than that. The same students are probably capable of programming the home video cassette recorder.  Likewise, it is important that teachers have an overview of where IT can help and where it cannot.

Change
As the Curriculum Council of Western Australia (1999) Post- Compulsory Education Review Discussion Paper states:

'Citizens of the 21^st century will require knowledge and skills that enable them to be creative and enterprising. Initiative, risk-taking, lateral thinking and resourcefulness will be vital to success. People will need to be flexible and adaptive in a society that is changing economically and socially. They will need to be technologically competent, capable of using the opportunities of the digital world and self-managing of careers that may change many times. As lifelong learners, they will need to continue to access education and training'.

According to Meredyth et. al. (1999), authors of the Real time: Computers, change and schooling study:

'Students now in Australian primary and secondary schools can expect to work and live in environments requiring competence in computer use and in convergent digital technology. More than this, they will need the ability to adapt their skills and understanding to change. Specific technical skills dependent upon current technologies will become obsolete at a rapid rate, as technological innovation proceeds and as the cost of technology drops with rising consumption and integration.

The implication is that information technology skills should be conceptualised broadly and should emphasise learning how to learn, rather than the acquisition of specific technical skills that will need to be frequently unlearned. Students will need the ability to cope with change and accept innovation, and their skills in using information technology will be inseparable from their analytical abilities'.

Change is inevitable. In terms of the successful use of ICT in the classroom, all teachers and administrators must continually challenge the known and embrace the unknown.

The success or otherwise of the use of computers in the classroom will ultimately come down not to the technology itself, but to the quality of the implementation of curriculum by the teacher.

Where are we now?
Despite huge spending on technology infrastructure, the use of technology in classrooms is not as widespread as you might expect. A certain 'cloudiness' remains over what computers can and should be used for in the classroom. To help examine this, we shall look at some of the skills and stages associated with ICT. There are countless models that attempt to map teacher competencies and attitudes to gain system- wide data. At the risk of over simplifying, the skills and stages associated with a teachers using computers can be divided into three categories.:

• Use by teachers for administrative and system- related purposes. This is the personal use of computers by educators in the surviving part of a teacher’s day.
• The acquisition of the skills to use a computer productively. This is the part most teachers find difficult in terms of managing their classes to achieve it.  It is the grind part of the day.
• The use of computers to aid in the learning processes itself. This is the category that influences the core business of teachers - implementing curriculum. This is the impact component of a teacher’s day.

Surviving comes naturally; people will do what it takes to survive as it has personal impact. The grind is a different matter. Without meaning or purpose, it does not happen. The impact is what we all want but without a belief in its value, people will not commit to the grind and hard work to ensure the impact is a positive one.

Like all learning, we need a number of different skill sets to help us make the most of whatever situation we find ourselves in. Using computers in the classroom is no different.  Both teachers and students need basic, interpretive and enabling skills to get the most out of ICT.

Basic skills
These fall into the what-skills-do-I-need-to-survive category. For teachers, this is usually driven by the need to use computers for administrative purposes. It is generally approached on a need-to-know basis.

It is the area that often causes great concern for teachers, although and I must say the concern is unfounded. The greatest impact is when teachers try to skill all the students at the same time in the same thing. The simple way around this - don’t do it.

Interpretive skills

The driving force for this stage, for the teacher, is less defined. It is that area where people collect and present data in a variety of ways. It is the preparation of material to hand out in class and the use of technology to present information. For students, the focus on using technology comes more from motivation than requirement. At this stage people operate as hunters and gathers, seeking out the information and presenting it.

This is not to suggest that this is a bad thing. Quite to the contrary, it is important that people be confident at this stage. It involves interpretation and organisation. It is not merely a stepping stone on the way to bigger and better things; it is an important aspect of learning.

Enabling skills
This is where the focus is on data the analysis of the data and not merely the interpretation.  The technology is used subliminally. In terms of the assessment, technology has no place; it is the assessment of what the student has learnt that is the focus.

In practice, all three types are used, as they should be. The skill for the 21^st century teacher is knowing the proportions to use.

Conclusion

If you go to see a doctor who is 50 years old, do you ask them whether they have has he kept abreast of medical developments since they finished medical school? Of course not. You would assume that the doctor has stayed abreast with developments and therefore is able to therefore dispense the best possible care.

In the equally important area of education, is it fair to assume that teachers have kept abreast of the latest developments in their field since graduating? Increasingly, teachers will need to understand the learning theories and the technologies that can best help the demands of 21^st century schools.

To look at how computers are to be used in the classroom requires an understanding of not only curriculum but the underlying theories associated with learning. Without such knowledge we can be assured of one thing - failing our students.

References

Bennett S & Lockyer L 1999, The impact of digital technologies on teaching and learning in K–12 education: Research and literature review final report, prepared for Curriculum Corporation by Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong.

Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning 2000, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, National Academy Press, Washington DC.

Curriculum Council of Western Australia 1999, Post-Compulsory Education Review Discussion Paper, Curriculum Council of Western Australia, Perth.

Ferretti RP & Okolo CM 1997, Designing multimedia projects in the social studies: Effects on students’ content knowledge and attitudes, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, March 1997.

Learning Research and Development Centre 1991, United States of America, <http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk4.htm>.

Meredyth D, Russell N,. Blackwood L, Thomas J & White P 1999, Real time: Computers, change and schooling: National sample study of the information technology skills of Australian school students, Commonwealth Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.

Newhouse CP, Trinidad S & Clarkson B 2002, Quality pedagogy and effective learning with information and communications technologies (ICT): A review of the literature. Western Australia Department of Education, <http://www.eddept.wa.edu.au/cmis/eval/downloads/pd/litreview.pdf>.

Newman W 1997, Principals, IT and Leadership—Coping with professional development despite isolation: Capacity building for IT in education in developing countries, edited by Gail Marshall and Mikko Ruohonen, Chapman and Hall, p. 128.

Richards FC 1996, The impact of the Internet on teaching and learning as perceived by teachers, library media specialists and students, unpublished Masters theses, Salem-Teikyo University, Eric document ED410943.

Roschelle JM, Pea RD, Hoadley CM, Gordin DN & Means BM 2000, Changing how and what children learn in school with computer-based technologies, <http://www.futureofchildren.org/information2826/information_show.htm?doc_id=69809>.

Schultz LH 1995, Pilot validation study of the Scholastic Beginning Literacy System, WiggleWorks 1994–95 midyear report, unpublished paper, February 1995.

Sivin-Kachela J & Bialo ER 1996, Report on the effectiveness of technology in schools, '95–'96, Software Publishers Association, Washington DC.

Valdez G, McNabb M, Foertsch M, Anderson M, Hawkes M & Raack L 1999, Computer-based technology and learning: Evolving uses and expectations, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, <http://www.ncrel.org/tplan/cbtl/toc.htm>.